Abstract
The preface sections of 21 textbooks in applied linguistics were analyzed on the basis of earlier genre based studies (Swales 1981, 1990). To identify the moves, textual clues and surface signals were fairly reliable indicators. However, since we defined them in terms of their functions, our ultimate criterion for assigning values to them was functional/discoursal rather than formal. What the analysis revealed was consistent existence of a 4-move schema in the data realized through different textual devices. The textual strategies utilized by the authors to signal the moves were also investigated and categorized. It is suggested that data of this kind can be useful for teachers of English for specific purposes (ESP), English for academic purposes (EAP) and applied linguistics through the medium of English. More specifically, the findings of this study can be beneficial in raising the awareness of students of applied linguistics to better access the content they need from textbooks on their subjects of study.
Key Words: textbook, preface, genre, move, discourse community, academic discourse
Key Words: textbook, preface, genre, move, discourse community, academic discourse
1. Introduction
Knowledge of generic conventions varies among members of any specific discourse community. In fact, those who are routinely involved in academic communication have greater knowledge of these conventions than those who are occasionally involved. This has serious implications for our understanding of the nature of acquisition of genre competence. In ideal circumstances, acquiring a discourse requires a long and subconscious process of genre-related activities under the supervision of expert members until a basic knowledge of genre and its related skills are acquired. As far as acquiring academic genres through the medium of English as a foreign language is concerned, a genre based literacy which advocates, among other things, the use of academic genres with particular focus on the conventional patterns of discourse structure and the way these patterns are textually realized can help students acquire genre knowledge and skills. As the most essential part of this genre based proposal, we need to raise learner awareness of the schematic structure of academic genres. This calls for a syllabus in which these generic structures are brought to the conscious attention of learners. This, in turn, requires analysis of academic discourses in terms of their schematic structures and the textualization of these structures. Successful academic communication requires a high level of academic genre awareness.
Swales' work (1981) is the first to analyze the schematic structure of an academic genre. The analysis, based on a corpus of forty-eight research article introductions from three fields of biology, medical science and social sciences, reports the dominance of four schematic stages, or 'moves' as he calls them, in the introduction sections: (1) Establishing the Field, (2) Summarizing Previous Research, (3) Preparing for Present Research, and (4) Introducing Present Research. Swales' (1981) model, which follows a fixed order, has been criticized by other genre analysts. In a combined effort Hopkins and Dudley-Evans (1988) studied conference papers and MA dissertations to yield a descriptive model that could cope with the complex schematic structure of long informative sections of genres such as discussion sections. Their analysis demonstrates, among other things, that the composite order of moves suggested by Swales' early model is not appropriate for longer genres or longer sections of genres. Instead they proposed that cyclical ordering may be more suitable. The point has been acknowledged by Swales (1990), who recognizes that texts may vary in their move structure because of different amounts of space available to the writer. He then posits his revised model, CARS (Create A Research Space), in which he identifies only three moves: (1) Establishing a Territory, (2) Establishing a Niche, and (3) Occupying the Niche. What is new in the CARS model is the recognition by Swales of the variation that exists in terms of the amount of rhetorical work to execute discourse tasks:
It follows that the amount of rhetorical work needed to create such a space depends on the existing ecological competition, on the size and importance of the niche to be established, and on various other factors such as the writer's reputation.
(Swales 1990:142)
Following Swales' (1990) tradition, the focus of the present study is on one of the major academic genres—the textbook. It is a teaching genre in academic communication in which knowledge is represented in factual form. Scientific knowledge, like any other phenomenon, has a developmental process. This process is originated, in the first place, by empirical research which then gradually becomes a well-established scientific fact shared and respected communally in the discourse community. This knowledge is communicated through three modes of scientific expression (Fleck 1933 & 1975 quoted in Salahshoor 2000). The first is the Journal Article which "bears the imprint of the personal and the provisional". It is a platform on which the scientist exposes his thesis to the wider discourse community of scholars and researchers, which can be challenged, accepted or rejected. Next is "the Vademecum" or the handbook, which Fleck describes as a collection of individual contributions selected and carefully organized as to provide guidelines for further research by showing what counts as the fundamental concepts, what the appropriate research procedures are, and whose research work looks more promising. And finally, there is the textbook at the end of the process which contains only 'accredited knowledge', with fewer knowledge claims and more factual information.
Approached from the perspective outlined above, the textbook is an academic genre in which accredited knowledge is provided in the form of generally accepted facts. It is the most prevalent form of teaching genres in academic settings. Therefore, analysis of the sections that constitute this major genre seems necessary to meet the multiple needs of both teachers and learners as an aid to better access and evaluate the knowledge they gain from textbooks. More specifically, the findings of such studies can be beneficial in improving the academic reading and study skills of novice members of different academic disciplines. Novice members and students of any field need to have a deeper understanding of the functions of the genres and subgenres used in their academic communities. While the scope of the corpus in the present study is limited to textbooks in applied linguistics, it is suggested that the findings can be beneficial in any study skills or academic reading course for students and novice members of various fields to raise their awareness of the structure of the genre analyzed and of the contributions of this genre as an aid to have appropriate and systematic access to the content they need.
Inspired by the necessity to understand specialized discourse, the present study is concerned with developing a framework to describe the move structure of the preface section of textbooks written in applied linguistics. More specifically, the present study seeks answers to the following questions:
1. What move structure dominates the preface section of textbooks?
2. What are the discourse functions of the moves?
3. In what dominant order are the moves displayed?
4. What kind of textual devices signal the moves?
Since the objective of this research is identifying the move structure of textbook prefaces, it is necessary to provide different points of view about the concept of move in order to derive an operational definition of the term. Nwogu (1991:114) defines move as”…a text segment made up of a bundle of linguistic features which give the segment a uniform orientation and signal the content of discourse in it.” Bhatia (1993:30-31) considers moves “…cognitive structures which serve certain communicative intentions and are subservient to the overall discourse communicative purpose of the genre.” Duszak (1994:299) defines move as “…a conventional strategy to carry out a discourse goal.”And finally, Holmes (1997:325) defines move as “…a segment of text that is shaped and constrained by a specific communicative function.”
For this study, we define move as a text segment, which may vary in size, shaped and constrained by a specific discourse goal. This text segment has a uniform orientation and the content of the discourse is signaled in it. In other words, we consider a move a text segment used for some identifiable discourse function. To highlight the main features of these definitions, moves can be defined in reference to the following attributes:
- Moves are subservient to the overall discourse goal of a given genre.
- Moves are conventional strategies which vary from one genre to another.
- Moves are realized in the propositional and illocutionary meanings of utterances.
2. Methods
The corpus of the present study is based on 21 textbook prefaces selected for analysis from the discipline of applied linguistics. The choice of textbooks was motivated by the need to control as much as possible for such variables as writer experience and expertise. Moreover, the selection of sample prefaces from a single discipline was intended to avoid any overgeneralizations of the results due to possible discipline-specific characteristics. Since I am mainly concerned with pedagogical implications, the major criterion in selection was to include textbooks which are widely used in the syllabuses of applied linguistic courses in my context (Iranian universities). Full bibliographical details of the textbooks are included in Appendix 1. In the text of this study they have been referred to according to their number in Appendix 1.
Following the approach of earlier genre-based studies (Swales 1981, 1990), textbook prefaces were analyzed for their move structure. To identify the moves, textual clues and surface signals were usually fairly reliable indicators; however, since we defined them as functional units, our ultimate criterion for assigning value to them was functional/discourse rather than formal. In other words, we did not trust the linguistic signals per se in the identification of moves.
In most cases the unit of analysis was the sentence. Where a sentence appeared to contain two moves (very few cases) and it was impossible to decide which of the moves within a sentence was more salient, it was coded as containing two moves.
Rough and dirty reading of the texts (Swales 1990) was followed by highlighting the identified moves. Conventionally, we chose a different color to highlight each move. Having done this, we extracted the move structure of the texts and summarized them in a single table in order to find the dominant pattern of the move structure in the data.
3. Results
Analysis of the prefaces reveals a four move structure, outlined in Table 1.
Table 1. Four Move Structure
Schematic Structure of Moves in Textbook Prefaces |
Frequency |
1. Announcing Objectives
2. Identifying Audience
3. Outlining Organization
4. Acknowledging others’ contribution |
21
21
14
17 |
Eleven prefaces use a four move structure. The choice of numbers is determined by the order in which the moves appeared, as summarized in Table 2. For instance, announcing objectives is coded as move 1 because it is the most frequent move in the initial position of the prefaces. As was discussed in the preceding section, a functional/discourse criterion was adopted for the identification of the moves and titles were chosen according to their common functional orientation. The following discussion deals with defining and describing moves in the data, explaining their functional values and categorizing the textual indices that signal each move.
Table 2. Order and Number of Moves
Preface |
Move Order |
No. of Move Units |
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 |
1-3-2-4
1-3-2-4
1-2-3-4
2-1-4
1-2
1-2-4
1-3-2
2-1-3-4
1-2-4
1-2-4
1-2-3-4
1-2-3
1-2-4
1-2-3-4
1-2-3-4
1-3-2-4
1-2-3-4
1-2-4
1-2-3
1-2-3-4
1-3-2-4 |
4
4
4
3
2
3
3
4
3
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4 |
3.1. Announcing Objectives
This is one of the most frequent moves in the data (move 2 was the other frequent move). It appears in all 21 prefaces and occupies the initial position in 19 texts (Table 2). Through this move the writers announce their objectives for writing the book:
Preface 11.The objective of this book is to help language teachers write better tests.
The prevalence of this move in all the prefaces highlights the fact that the writers are expected to "announce the objective" of writing the book. Furthermore, the occurrence of this move in initial position in the majority of the prefaces indicates the significance of mentioning the goals and aims before moving to the next stages of developing the preface. Writers utilize different textual categories, which are categorized in Summary 1, to announce the objectives of their books.
Summary 1. Samples of textual categories employed for announcing objectives
BOOK+ BE + PP (passive structure)
p.17. The book is also intended to ……
p.1. Principles of language learning and teaching is designed to…..
p.18. This book is concerned with…….
NOUN PHRASES
p.4. The book has the following aims……..
p.3. The goal of the third edition of Developing Second Language Skill is….
p. 8. The twofold objective of the book is to……
BOOK+ VERB (active structure)
p.5. This book attempts to……
p. 9. This book provides……
p.10. ….it will do a number of things
p.7. …which also looks at…….
WRITER+VERB
p.19. In this book I try to……..
p. 13. I have been striving to…….
p. 21. ….I have tried to…..
3.2. Identifying Audience
Like move 1, move 2 appears in all the prefaces analyzed. In 14 prefaces it occupies the second position and so it is represented as move 2 (Table 2). Functionally, it serves to identify the audience of the books. Those who would benefit most from the book are introduced and in some cases the threshold or educational level for using the book is defined:
Preface 14.We have aimed to create a text that can be used as a resource by those carrying out many different types of second language research. We have approached the book with the novice researcher in mind.
The prevalence of this move in all prefaces demonstrates its significance. Any reader who tries to access the content of a book might be interested in knowing whether he/she is among the target audience of the writer. Just knowing the objectives of the writer is not sufficient; potential buyers should make sure the book is appropriate for their level of education and knowledge. The textual categories are included in Summary 2.
Summary 2. Samples of textual categories employed to identify the audience
BOOK+ VERB+ TARGET AUDIENCE
p.1. This book is designed to serve as a textbook for graduate or advanced undergraduates….
p.3. …..that will enable both prospective and practicing teachers to ….
p.4 This book is aimed at teachers and applied linguists…..
p.6. …..should be made available to both teachers of English and students of TEFL/TESOL
p.11. ….will be of most interest to students of language or linguistics…
p.12. This text is planned for……
p.14. ….a text that can be used as a resource by those carrying out many types of second language research…
p.15. This book is oriented toward an informed audience…
p. 18. This book is appropriate for both students and professionals ……
p19. …..aims to be a book that can be read by practitioners and theoreticians …
p.20….should prove to be most useful in first-level course…..
TARGET AUDIENCE+ VERB
p.2. Any contemporary student of language teaching needs to ……
p.9 ….an advanced student will soon realize …..
p.8. …..both classroom teachers and trainers of teachers have shown an increasing interest…..
p.11. ….others coming from sociology, social psychology and anthropology may be interested to…….
3.3. Outlining Organization
The third move utilized by writers of the prefaces in the data appears in 14 texts (the least frequent move in the data) of which nine writers locate it in the third position (Table 2). It serves as a map of the book and reveals the issues dealt with in each section. To achieve this, the writers mention the number and order of chapters in the book explicitly and refer to the content of each chapter:
Preface 8. In the opening chapters he is introduced to the general purposes and methods of language testing and is asked to consider the chief characteristics of good educational measures. A series of six chapters then describes specific techniques for testing each of the major components of English as taught to speakers of other languages, after which attention is directed to the step-by-step process whereby the ESL test is constructed and administered, and the result interpreted. The final chapter offers procedures for calculating a few basic test statistics which will aid the teacher-test writer in evaluating the soundness of his test and the performance of his students. As with the rest of the book, the final chapter assumes no previous training in tests and measurement and no knowledge of advanced mathematics.
Since not all parts of a single book may be suitable for the identified audience, the readers might find such book maps suitable to locate where to find information of interest. Some parts of books might be appropriate for specific educational courses so the teacher or student would find this move useful in identifying the contents of the book. The salient textual category in the data is included in Summary 3:
Summary 3. Samples of textual strategies employed to outline the organization
CHAPTER+CONTENT or CONTENT+CHAPTER
p.3. The comprehensive list of …at the end of each chapter helps……The activities at the end of each chapter help..
p.11. In chapter 4…….are presented…..
p.14.The discussion and data base questions and activities at the end of each chapter are aimed to……..
p.15. In chapter 2, ………is discussed.
p.16. This model is presented in chapter 2 and is used in subsequent chapters……..
p.17. There is a common format to each chapter The authors present …in chapter 16……
p.19. I provide…………….in chapters two and three.
p.21. The ………… at the end of each chapter are presented
p.3. The first five chapters deal with……..
p.7. There are completely new chapters on……
p.8. In the opening chapters he is introduced to……
p.12. Chapter 1 provides…… Chapter 2 deals with….. Chapter 3 is devoted to…… Chapter 5 is connected with……
p.15. The final chapter discusses…..
p. 16. In the final chapter we examine…….
p.17. Each chapter opens with…… Each chapter has a ……..section …
p. 19. In chapters four and six I apply…….. In chapter five I explore……
p. 21 . The material in these sections is designed to……..
3.4. Acknowledging others’ contribution
The last move appears in 17 prefaces. In all the prefaces it occupies the last position (Table 2). The writers utilizing this move use it to acknowledge, thank and appreciate all those who had a role in the production of the book. Those who are acknowledged include colleagues, students and family members:
Preface 1.This book has grown out of graduate courses in the theoretical foundations of language teaching that I have taught at San Francisco State University, the University of Illinois, and the University of Michigan. My first debt of gratitude is therefore to my students - for their insights, enthusiasm, and support. ………. I am also grateful to faculty colleagues both here at San Francisco State University and around the world for offering verbal commentary, informal written opinions, and formal published reviews, all of which were useful in fashioning this third edition. I also wish to acknowledge the staff and the resources of the American Language Institute for support in this revision and in other research and writing projects. Finally, hugs and kisses to Mary for once again putting up with papers and journals and books strewn all over the house.
Preparing a textbook which considers different issues of applied linguistics is not possible unless a group of people join together in supporting the author. Acknowledging and thanking contributors is a significant move in the preface to wrap up the section. Gratitude, grateful, thank, acknowledge, appreciate and debt constitute the major lexical choices in the data, as illustrated in Summary 4.
Summary 4. Samples of textual strategies employed to acknowledge others’ contribution
GRATITUDE
p.1 My first debt of gratitude is therefore to ……for…..
p.13. I want to express my sincere gratitude for……
p.15. I express my gratitude to….for…..
GRATEFUL
p.4. I am grateful to……
p.14. We are grateful to…..
ACKNOWLEDGE
p.1. I also wish to acknowledge……
p.3. I readily acknowledge my indebtedness and gratitude to……for….
p.11. I must acknowledge the contribution of………
p.16. We would like to acknowledge especially……
p.21. I would especially like to acknowledge my debt for…. to…….
DEBT
p.4 I am indebted to…….
p.20. I owe a considerable debt to…..
APPRECIATE
p.8. The writer wishes to express his appreciation to……for……
p. 14. We greatly appreciate…………
MENTION
p.3. I hasten to mention……..
p.10. I should like to mention in particular…
THANK
p.2. We would particularly like to thank…..for……
p.3. I would also like to thank.... I would certainly be remiss if I did not take this opportunity to thank….
p.6. Last but not least, thanks are also due to…..for……
p.9. My greatest thanks go to……..
p.13. Further thanks go to…..for I want to thank …..for….
p.17. I wish to thank……..
4. Discussion
The shape of genre and its internal structure are determined by the communicative purpose it is going to serve. Genres are not considered ends in themselves rather they are utilized to perform higher level communicative purposes and social actions. Paltridge (1995) believes that instances of genre are assigned to particular categories not on the basis of a response to a property internal to them, but on the basis of a "signification that is bestowed on them from without," or on the basis of pragmatic and perceptual, rather than linguistic, aspects of communicative events. In Biber's words “genre categories are assigned on the basis of user rather than on the basis of form” (1988:170).
This is the non-linguistic, communicative rationale that shapes the schematic structure of the discourse and influences and constrains choice of content and style. This rationale "displays constraints on allowable contributions in terms of their intent, positioning, form and functional value" (Bhatia 1993:14). The implication of such a perspective to understanding the nature of genre is that the schematic structure identified by the analytic component of this study should be considered in light of the broad communicative intentions and purposes behind it. Thus scientific knowledge should not be treated independently from the participants of discourse. Scientific facts and their medium of expression can be examined in relation to their role in the conceptualization process of the scientific mind. Fundamental scientific concepts are introduced to the student through the textbook genre, which later becomes a platform for research activities. But this is not as simple as it seems. The interaction between the textbook writer and the student, however central that may seem, is not by any means the only interaction in the textbook. There are other participants involved which makes the nature of discourse complex. Overall, between the author and the student, there are three mediating participants, as shown in Table 3:
Table 3. Mediating Participants of Textbook Discourse (Salahshoor 2000: 151)
author
teacher
student
peer colleagues
publisher |
There are different interactive processes between these participants. The writer covertly anticipates the expectations of his audience. One interaction is between the author as the producer of the textbook and the peer. The main motivation, from the author's point of view, is to gain recognition and prestige among the other expert members of the discourse community. For this reason, it is reasonable to think that the expectations and requirements of these expert peers are taken into account by the textbook writer and reflected in both the content and format of the genre. Yet the main audience of the textbook (especially the introductory textbook) is not the peer but students who read the text for information. This interaction is pedagogic in the sense that the textbook helps the enlargement of the conceptual world of the student. This characterizes a writer-reader relationship based on unequal social and knowledge status. However, in most cases the interaction between the author and the student reader is mediated by another discourse participant, the teacher or lecturer. This means that the author should also have an eye on the expectations of teachers. For example, a textbook needs to be convincing to the teacher who is going to use it in terms of its potential for promoting both teaching and learning in the classroom. Another force in the creation of a textbook is financial. Textbooks, unlike research articles, need to be marketed and sold. This introduces yet another participant to the discourse, the publisher, who among other things expects the author to commit to meet certain publishing requirements such as conformity to standards of from and content.
This multiple participant relationship underlies the rationale behind the preface subgenre and its schematic structure. It is the space to bring together the multiple participants of textbook discourse and address their various expectations.
5. Conclusion
A genre-based literacy for raising awareness about schematic genre structures should involve a database from which description of academic patterns across academic discourses can emerge. This and similar studies can contribute to the compilation of large-scale databases whose ultimate goal is designing genre-based courses for developing genre awareness skills.
As discussed previously, textbooks represent a major teaching genre in academic circles. They are the main tool for providing 'accredited knowledge' to students. The complexity of the subgenres that constitute the textbook genre can be understood by reference to the multiple participant networks which influence and shape the schematic structure of the discourse in these subgenres. The four move schema in the preface sections of textbooks is an attempt by writers to meet the expectations of actors involved in textbook discourse.
Inspired by such an understanding, the outcomes of studies into the textbook genre can be beneficial for teachers of English for Specific Purposes, English for Academic Purposes and teachers and students of Applied Linguistics. More specifically, the findings of this study can be used in courses which attempt to improve academic study and reading skills of novice applied linguists. In my context students take a study skills course which usually covers topics such as dictionary skills, library skills, reading skills, writing skills, note-taking skills, quoting skills and examination skills. What I have tried to propose in this paper is that these novice members need to be exposed to other skills, including genre awareness of the materials through which they access knowledge. Since textbooks are a major genre in academia, the knowledge of how to use them appropriately and systematically is essential. One way of making textbooks beneficial for learners is revealing the functional values of their different sections. After all, effective communication in any field of study requires awareness of the conventions that dominate the discourse of that field.
The most obvious limitation of this and similar works is that while we are proposing a genre-based course whereby the main aim is to raise awareness about the schematic structure of academic discourses, this paper represents only a small-scale description, covering only textbook prefaces. However, a genre-based academic literacy should be seen as on-going, one that evolves and takes shape as more description becomes available. Thus while the present research is only a small piece of the puzzle, as other descriptions are created they may eventually create a mosaic of the genre which could be comprehensive in its coverage.
The issue of schematic genre structure is well established. However, certain areas have been less investigated than others. This includes many teaching genres and particularly the textbook. Different sections of textbook genres can be studied on the basis of move structure. There is also room for comparative researches, not only at the move level but also at the textual level to establish what pragma-lingual features are used to signal what schematic structures across academic genres.
References
Bhatia, V. (1993).Analyzing genre: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman.
Duszak, A. (1994). Academic discourse and intellectual style. Journal of Pragmatics, 21(3), 291-313.
Holmes, R. (1997). 'Genre analysis and social sciences: an investigation of the structure of research article discussion sections in three disciplines'. English for Specific Purposes.16(4), 321-337.
Hopkins, A. and Dudley-Evans, T. (1988). A genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations. English for Specific Purposes, 7, 113-121.
Kuhn, T. (1970). The structure of scientific revolution (2nd ed.).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nwogu, K. N. (1991). Discourse variation in medical texts: Schema, theme and cohesion in professional and journalistic accounts. Monographs in Systemic Linguistics, Vol. 2. Nottingham: Department of English Studies, University of Nottingham.
Salahshoor, F. (2000). A genre-based approach to EFL academicliteracy: The case of Iran. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of Essex
Swales, J. (1981).Aspects of article introductions. Birmingham, UK: Prentice Hall.
Swales, J. (1990).Genre analysis: English in academic and research setting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Appendix 1: The List of Textbooks Used in the Analysis
1. Brown, H. D. (1993). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.).NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
2. Brumfit, C. J. and Johnson, K. (1979). The communicative approach to language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Florida: HBJ.
4. Ellis, R (1990). Instructed second language acquisition. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell.
6. Fisiak, J. (Ed.) (1981). Contrastive linguistics and language teacher. Oxford: Pergamon.
7. Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching (3rd ed.). London: Longman.
8. Harris, D. P. (1969).Testing English as a second language. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.
9. Haspelmath, M. (2002). Understanding morphology. London: Arnoldm
10. Hudson, R. A. (1996). Sociolinguistics. (2nded). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11. Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. Keshavarz, M. H. (1999). Contrastive analysis and error analysis. Tehran: Rahnama.
13. Lobner, S. (2002). Understanding semantics. London: Arnold.
14. Mackey, A. and Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research methodology and design. London: LEA.
15. McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language learning. London: Arnold.
16. Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T.S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
17. Schmitt, N. (2002). An introduction to applied linguistics. London: Arnold.
18. Steinberg, D. D. (1991). Psycholinguistics: Language, mind and world. London: Longman.
19. Van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning. London: KAP.
20. Wardhaugh, R. (1986). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
21. Yule, G. (1996). The study of language (2nd ed).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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